SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY XXI: New Physica, Physics X.0 & Technology X.0

The QM forces, processes, effects and applications

The concept of “force-relationship” gets a deeper meaning in quantum mechanics, introducing operators instead of classical variables and the Schr?dinger equation instead of Newtonian equations. The results of a measurement are now partly "quantized", appearing in discrete quantum portions, while the potentials V(x,y,z) or forcible fields, from which the forces generally can be derived, are treated like classical position variables. Only in the framework of quantum field theory, these fields are quantized as well.

There are two nuclear interactions forces, which account for the interactions of subatomic particless. The strong nuclear force responsible for the structural integrity of atomic nuclei and the weak nuclear force responsible for the decay of certain nucleons into leptons and other types of hadrons.

The strong force is the fundamental force for the interactions between quarks and gluons as covered by the theory of quantum chromodynamics (QCD). The strong interaction is mediated by gluons, acting upon quarks,antiquarks, and the gluons themselves, and it is the "strongest" of the four fundamental forces.

The weak force is due to the exchange of the heavy W and Z bosons, with its well-known effect of beta decay (of neutrons in atomic nuclei) and the associated radioactivity, and having the field strength about 1000 times less than that of the strong force, but being stronger than gravity over short distances. An electroweak force theory shows that electromagnetic forces and the weak force are one force in excess of 1015 kelvins, the temporal conditions of the universe in the early moments of the Big Bang.

In quantum mechanics, the particles acting onto each other possess the spatial variable, added with a discrete intrinsic angular momentum variable called the "spin", liable to the Pauli principle relating the space and the spin variables. Depending on the value of the spin, identical particles divided into two different general classes, fermions and bosons. In the case of two fermions (e.g., electrons) there is a strictly negative correlation between spatial and spin variables, whereas for two bosons (e.g., quanta of electromagnetic waves, or photons) the correlation is strictly positive.

In particle physics, forces are explained as the exchange of momentum-carrying gauge bosons. The quantum field theory and general relativity force is also closely connected with the conservation of momentum (4-momentum in relativity and momentum of virtual particles in quantum electrodynamics). The conservation of momentum derived from the symmetry of space, both being derived from the symmetrical force-interrelationship, therefore the fundamental forces are really fundamental interactions.

Accordingly, the same reversibility schema applies to all forces of fundamental interactions. The interactive relationships are well predicted with Feynman diagrams, where each matter particle is represented as a straight line (a world line) traveling through time. World lines of particles intersect at interaction nodes or vertices, and any force arising from an interaction is occurring at the vertex with an associated instantaneous change in the direction of the particle world lines. Gauge bosons are emitted away from the vertex as wavy lines and, in the case of virtual particle exchange, are absorbed at an adjacent vertex. Matter and anti-matter particles are identical except for their direction of propagation through the Feynman diagram.

The Feynman diagrams covers the types of physical phenomena that are conceptually separate from forces: like as a neutron decays into an electron, proton, and neutrino, an interaction mediated by the same gauge boson that is responsible for the weak nuclear force.

The QM fundamental processes contain all the quantum-mechanical effects of the microparticles interactions (e.g., fundamental interactions, reactions between elementary particles, atomic collisions, scattering of photons, quasi-particles, quantum transitions, as well as nuclear reactions of type A (a, bcd) B and reversed processes B (bcd, a) A, here A – a target-nucleus, a – bombarding particles; b, c, d – emitted particles and B– remained nuclei in the forward process).

For electromagnetic and strong (nuclear) interactions, the probabilities of forward and reversed processes are equal because of the reversibility principle; namely, the reversal symmetry of motion and the principle of detailed equilibrium for microprocesses are clearly the consequences of the process reversal law.

The applications of reversible processes as the thermonuclear reactions of atomic nuclei, consisting in the interactions of two particles at supra high temperatues, are just bind-blowing. Chains of thermonuclear reactions, the proto-proton cycle or the carbon cycle, account for the solar energy and many other stars. When in an uncontrolled state, we have the destructive force of thermonuclear bombs and the last of all human wars.

But when the thermonuclear reactions under controlled conditions, the nuclear fusion, like the laser intiated, could be the source of practically unlimited green and renewable energy.

The thermal forces, processes, effects and applications

The interrelationships between heat and energy, temperature and work, their convertibility and the mechanical work involved are all under thermal processes, force and effects, and studied by thermodynamics, a fundamental part of all the physical science. Its three laws of thermodynamic are the law of conservation of energy, the law of equilibrium, or dicreasing entropy, or an irreversible process, and the law of absolute zero. It is widely believed that an irreversible process towards a stable condition of equilibrium of sliding to a state of maximum entropy (or disorder) could be one of the most universal regulators of all natural activities. Seemingly only after reversible processes tending to a state of minimum entropy (order, highest orderness of energy). If the entropic regression from order to disorder is about chaotic disruptions of structure and organization, then its inverse, the entropic progression from disorder to order is about creative disruptions of structure and organization.

Its key concept, temperature, is an interrelationship of heat and energy. Thermodynamic forces are coming from heat and work interactions. The maximum work can be done if only the work producing process is completely reversible. For the fuels found in natures, like uranium or the fossill fuels of oil, gas or coal, it is required reversible nuclear reactions or reversible chemical reactions, respectively.

Thermodynamic processes can be carried out reversibly or irreversibly. Reversibility refers to performing a reaction continuously at equilibrium. A reversible process is a process whose direction can be "reversed" by inducing infinitesimal changes to some property of the system via its surroundings, without increasing entropy. Throughout the entire reversible process, the physical system is in an thermodynamic equilibrium with its surroundings.

In an ideal thermodynamically reversible process, the energy from work performed would be maximized, and that from heat would be minimized.

The thermodynamic reversibility is changes of a system’s states made spontaneously or by interacting with other systems reversed to its initial state without leaving any net effects in the systems involved.

The thermal processes embrace all the temperature changes to physical bodies (convection, cooling, heating), flow of heat, thermal conductivity, as well as the effects of thermal equilibrium radiation.

The reversal law involves thermodynamic systems in stable equilibrium states, as in classical thermodynamics, open physical systems in nonequilibrium states of nonequilibrium thermodynamics, or modern thermodynamics of dissipative systems. The nonequilibrium thermodynamics together with statistical thermodynamics studies a class of open thermodynamic systems, exchanging energy and matter with its environment, so intiating thermodynamic processes and phenomena, as thermoelectrical, galvanomagnetic, and thermogalvanomagnetic, in both directions, direct and reverse.

It is covered by the phenomenlogical equation: J

= ?

L

X

, the Onsager theorem and the Le Chatelier principle. For small fluctuations or deviations from the thermodynamic equilibrium, the equation describes the following processes.

The direct processes, when the thermodynamic force X

is causing the same kind of thermodynamic flow J

, as a temperature gradient – heat flow. The cross-processes, where the thermodynamic force X

is causing different kind of thermodynamic flow J

, as a temperature gradient – material flow in multicomponent systems, like as thermodiffusion, which must run in both directtions, foreward and backward, having special names.

Last, not least, the reversibility principle governs a reversible chemical reaction in which no net change happens in the amount of reactantsand products. In such chemical equilibrium, the two opposing reactions go in both directions at equal rates, or velocities, varying with the temparature and pressure, as to the Le Chatelier principle.

There are a lot of thermal devices based on thermal effects involving heat and work interactions.

The electrical forces, processes, effects and applications

One of the basic physical forces is Coulomb force of interaction, attraction or repulsion of objects and particles due to their electric charge. Coulomb's Law is determining the electrostatic force as varied as an inverse square law directed in the radial direction, independent of the mass of the charged objects and liable the force superposition principle. Coulomb's law reminding a gravitational force is another good case of the symmetrical force-relationship. Later the concept of the electric field was constructef useful for determining the electrostatic force on an electric charge at any point in space.

Electromotive force is responsible for generating the electricity flow from one point to another, or an electric current as the time rate of change of electric charge.

The electrical processes cover all the effects of the dielectric polarization of the material media and current electricity.

The magnetic forces, processes, effects and applications

Other basic physical forces is the Lorentz force of magnetism existing between two electric currents. Lorentz's Law describes the force on a charge moving in a magnetic field. It has the same mathematical form as Coulomb's Law except that like currents attract and unlike currents repel. Like the electric field, the magnetic field can be used to determine the magnetic force on an electric current at any point in space. The magnetic field exerts a force on all magnets, as the Earth's magnetic field causes compass magnets to become oriented by the magnetic force pulling on the needle.

The magnetomotive forces are producing a magnetic flux.

The magnetic processes include the effects of magnetization of solids, gases, atoms, molecules by an external magnetic field and also the phenomena binding changings of physical quantities characterizing magnetic phenomena in different physical media.

As a sample, we can mention the effect "Giant Magnetoresistance" as a sample of a huge magnetic inertia of magnetic resistence and the necessity of its converse effects.

The electromagnetic forces, processes, effects and applications

The forcible interrelations between electricity and magnetism result in a unified electromagnetic force acting on a charge. This complex force-relationship can be written as a sum of the electrostatic force (due to the electric field) and the magnetic force (due to the magnetic field).

The mutual interactions of the electric and magnetic fields are producing a "self-generating" electromagnetic field freely propagating in space with the speed of light and transporting electromagnetic energy, radiation, as waves, and exerting so called pondermotive forces. Formally it is described by the Maxwell’s Equations including the sources of the fields as being stationary and moving charges, and the interactions of the fields themselves, unifying a number of different insights and theories into a set of 20 scalar equations, which were later reformulated into 4 vector equations by Heaviside and Gibbs.

When the electromagnetic theory was combined with optics, it led to a full description of the electromagnetic spectrum, from radio waves to gamma rays.

While reconciling electromagnetic theory with the photoelectric effect and the nonexistence of the ultraviolet catastrophe, a new theory of electromagnetism was developed using quantum mechanics. This modification to electromagnetic theory resulted in quantum electrodynamics (QED) describing all electromagnetic phenomena as being mediated by wave–particles known as photons. The photons are the fundamental exchange particle accounting for all interactions relating to electromagnetism including the electromagnetic force.

The electromagnetic processes are coming from the mutual interactions of electric and magnetic fields.

The electromagnetic induction is another strong case of the reversal principle and convertibility laws. A changing magnetic field caused by a varying current in a conductor induces an electromotove force, a voltage, which is inversly causing the current and a magnetic field, thus creating a forceful interrelationship.

The electromagnetic processes include all the effects of electromagnetic waves such as interactions and scatterings (including visible optical, X-rays and – rays bands) or the quantum field effects. Such effects are described by the nonlinear theory of fields.