Plain English

The man who has no education is handicapped in the struggle.

Are these the books that you ordered?

In the first sentence, who has an education is an adjective clause modifying the noun man, introduced by the relative pronoun who, which is also the subject of the verb has.

In the second sentence, that you ordered is an adjective clause, modifying the noun books, introduced by the relative pronoun that, which is also the object of the verb ordered.

371. There is no need to be confused in this matter of clauses. If the clause is used as a noun, either as the subject or the object or in any other way in which a noun can be used, it is a noun clause. If it is used as an adverb and will answer any of the questions why, when, where, or how, etc., it is an adverb clause. If it is used as an adjective,—if it modifies a noun or pronoun,—it is an adjective clause.

You will note that the only way in which a noun is used that does not have its corresponding clause is as a possessive. We do not have possessive clauses. The clause used as an adjective always modifies a noun or pronoun.

372.An adjective clause is a clause used as an adjective and hence always modifies a noun or pronoun.

An adjective clause may be introduced by the relative pronouns, who, which or that. The use of this clause is a great help to us in the expression of our ideas, for it enables us to combine several sentences containing related thoughts into one sentence so we have it all presented to the mind at once.

Exercise 2

In the following sentences, note which are the noun clauses and which are the adjective clauses and which are the adverb clauses. The verb in the subordinate clause is in italics.

1. Life is what we make it.

2. We acquire the strength that we overcome.

3. While he slept the enemy came.

4. All that he does is to distribute what others produce.

5. When faith is lost, when honor dies, the man is dead.

6. Thrice is he armed who hath his quarrel just; he is naked though he be locked up in steel whose conscience with injustice is corrupted.

7. When strength and justice are true yoke fellows, where can we find a mightier pair than they?

8. You will gain a good reputation if you endeavor to be what you desire to appear.

9. Live as though life were earnest and life will be so.

10. He that loveth makes his own the grandeur that he loves.

11. Who does the best his circumstance allows does well; angels could do no more.

12. He is not worthy of the honeycomb that shuns the hive because the bees have stings.

13. We always may be what we might have been.

14. Rich gifts wax poor when givers prove unkind.

15. Let me make the songs of the people and I care not who makes the laws.

16. Attention is the stuff that memory is made of.

17. A great writer has said that grace is beauty in action; I say that justice is truth in action.

18. If we do not plant knowledge when young it will give us no shade when we are old.

19. You can no more exercise your reason if you live in constant dread of laughter than you can enjoy your life if you live in constant dread and terror of death.

WHICH RELATIVE PRONOUN TO USE

373. We are sometimes confused as to which relative pronoun to use in introducing an adjective clause. We hesitate as to whether we should use that or who or which. Remember that who always refers to persons, which refers to animals or things, and that may refer to either persons, animals or things.

So when referring to a person, we may use either who or that, and when referring to animals or things, we may use either which or that. As, for example, we may say, either, The man who was here yesterday came back today, or The man that was here yesterday came back today. Either is correct, for who and that both refer to persons.

374. We may make a little distinction in the use of who and that when referring to persons, however. A clause introduced by that is usually a restrictive clause. It limits or restricts the meaning of the noun which it modifies. When you say, The man that was here yesterday, you mean that man and no other, limiting your meaning to that particular man. On the other hand, when you say, The man who was here yesterday, there is no restriction or limitation expressed in the use of the clause, but it is merely a descriptive clause, adding a new fact to our knowledge concerning that particular man.

The same is true when we are speaking of things using either that or which. The clause introduced by which is presumably a descriptive clause. We do, however, often use who or which when the sense of the clause is restrictive, but we should never use that to introduce an adjective clause, unless the sense is restrictive. When in your sentences you can use, instead of the relative pronoun who or which, the conjunction and, you can know that the use of the pronoun who or which is correct. As, for example:

I have read the book, which I found very interesting.

You could say instead:

I have read the book and I found it very interesting.

This would express the same meaning. But if you say: I have read the book that I found very interesting, you mean that you limit your idea to this particular book.

375. We do not always observe these niceties in our spoken and written speech, but it is interesting to know the shades of thought and meaning which you can express by the proper use of the language. The man who runs an engine and learns to know and love his machine almost as though it were a human being, can easily recognize the slightest change in the action of his machine. His ear catches the least difference in the sound of the running of the machine, a difference which we, who do not know and love the machine, would never notice.

So it is in language. Once we have sensed its beauty and its wondrous power of expression, we notice all these slight differences and shades of meaning which may be expressed by the use of words. In just the same manner the musician catches the undertones and overtones of the music, which we, who possess an uneducated ear, cannot know; and the artist also has a wondrous range of color, while we, who are not sensitive to color, know only a few of the primal colors.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES WITH CONJUNCTIONS

376. The adjective clauses which we have been studying so far have been introduced by relative pronouns. Adjective clauses may also be introduced by conjunctions, such as, where, when, whence, or why. As, for example:

Antwerp is the place where a terrible battle was fought.

No man knows the hour when opportunity will be his.

Each group has a different reason why this world-war was precipitated.

Note in these sentences the clauses, where a terrible battle was fought, when opportunity will be his, why this world-war was precipitated, are all adjective clauses modifying the nouns place, hour and reason, and are introduced by the conjunctions where, when, and why. These are adjective clauses because they modify, by either limiting or describing, the nouns with which they are used. You will note that we could omit the nouns in the first two of these sentences and these clauses would become noun clauses, for they would be used in the place of a noun. As, for example:

Antwerp is where a terrible battle was fought.

No man knows when opportunity will be his.

377. We determine whether a clause is an adjective or an adverb or a noun clause just as we determine whether a word is an adjective, adverb or noun, by the work which it does in a sentence. Noun clauses are used in the place of a noun; adverb clauses modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs; adjective clauses modify nouns and pronouns.

THE LITTLE WORD "AS"