Aromatherapy Workbook

However, a synthetic smell cannot, in my opinion, help a health problem without leading to side effects, as is often the case with synthetic drugs. There are scientists today who would argue with this and I believe such people are forgetting certain principles.

When science removes the therapeutic molecules or components from plants or essential oils, the administered result seems to give side effects. It is now appreciated that in the whole plant, or whole essential oil, there are many apparently useless components, including several that we cannot identify. These are believed to be ‘quenchers’ of the side effects which therapeutic agents in isolation could, and indeed do, cause. A good example of this is cinnamon bark oil. Cinnamic aldehyde, a major constituent of this oil, was found to be a severe irritant and the oil was therefore branded as an irritant. However, the complete oil, when tested, was found to be an irritant only on certain people – and to a much lesser degree.

(#litres_trial_promo) The other components or constituents of the whole oil were quenching the irritant quality of the aldehyde, no-one knowing exactly which ones or how. (The whole oil may, however, be a sensitizer for some people – see chapters 3 (#u35d87537-07fb-5c2f-9af9-cb22524f5805) and 6 (#litres_trial_promo).)

If an essential oil can be made using synthetic versions of the chemicals that are known to occur naturally in the plant, the unidentifiable ones will be absent, therefore the result will not be a complete and whole essential oil. Thus it will most likely produce side-effects, as do other unnatural drugs. Nature always knows best!

There are scientists who believe that essential oils made in the laboratory will have exactly the same therapeutic effect as those made by Mother Nature; it is true that tea tree, the simplest essential oil, can be made in a laboratory and may help a health problem (though perhaps producing side effects with prolonged use). If asked whether there is any difference between synthetic and distilled tea tree, the scientist is bound to admit that there is a slight measurable difference in the carbon atoms, therefore giving a clue as to whether the oil is synthetic or not. He will also tell us that despite this, the properties are exactly the same! With more complicated oils, there are many unidentified components present in very small quantities, which cannot be imitated; hence such an oil would not be ‘whole’ as we know the meaning of the word.

This brings us to the question of vital force in essential oils. Almost every aromatherapist believes in this subtle, invisible, intangible quality that is not susceptible to any scientific proof. ‘Life force’ is thought to be due to some indefinable process (perhaps comparable to photosynthesis) whereby some part of the electro-magnetic energy of the sun’s rays is converted into an energy which is stored in the essential oil cells in the plant.

The scientific community will quote the dictionary definition of vital force; ‘the force on which the phenomena of life in animals and plants depend – distinct from chemical and mechanical forces operating in them’. In other words, once a plant is harvested it is dead.

The only difference between a living human being and a body in the immediate moment of death is this ‘vital’ or ‘life’ force. At that particular moment, nothing else has changed. The spirit or soul is a different matter for consideration; many religions, including Christianity, believe this lives on. In my opinion, the spirit of a plant (its energy) ‘lives on’ in its synergy (it is no longer living) and it is this special and unique mix of natural chemicals – which no human has been able to put together – which gives an essential oil its subtle, invisible, intangible, vibrant quality.

Quality

I have to be honest and admit that synthetic and adulterated oils will ‘work’ to a certain extent (in the latter there could be a high percentage of the natural oil present). It is the quality which is different. Optimum quality is paramount not only in order to get the best results, but also to avoid the risk of possible harmful side effects. A bonus is that less essential oil is then needed in order to be effective, a fact often forgotten by people who buy oils on the false economy of price. Organic oils are best of all (see below).

Despite the fact that we obtain most oils direct from the farming community, tests are carried out to determine the levels of the constituent components, as these are not the same each year. Because of this, an oil may not have exactly the same aroma each time you buy it.

Gas-Liquid Chromatography

It is possible to ‘read’ the formula of an essential oil using various techniques, the most common being the gas-liquid chromatograph (GLC). In this apparatus a minute amount of essential oil is injected into a temperature controlled, extremely fine, coiled, tubular column. The time taken (called the retention time) for each component to emerge from the other end of the column is different, depending on the molecule size. The quantity released is recorded, showing a peak on the trace (proportional to the quantity). This is a comparative test, not an absolute one, the retention time of known constituents having already been determined, to aid in the analysis.

As every batch of oil will vary in its percentages of components, one reading of each oil is kept as a ‘standard’. This standard can then be directly compared to that of another essential oil from the same plant.

This technique shows any added adulterant having a retention time not evident on the standard. However it is possible to adulterate an oil low in a certain constituent, simply by taking that constituent from another, usually cheaper, essential oil, to ‘correct’ its reading. Sometimes a synthetic replica of a component is used, and occasionally, where a high concentration of one ingredient is desired, the oil will have a percentage of its terpenes removed, as in peppermint oil (see chapter 4 (#u84ec42d8-2513-5ffd-82e5-ec24d26897d2)). Aromatherapists should be wary of such an oil as this ‘concentrates’ the active components. Alternatively an ingredient may be augmented, as in the case of eucalyptol added to eucalyptus oil.

FIGURE 2.3: Gas-liquid chromatographs

Of all tests carried out on essential oils, the most common, apart from the GLC, are infra red, optical rotation, specific gravity, mass spectrometry (very expensive, but excellent) solubility in alcohols and ester content.

Organically Grown Oils

The term ‘organic’ has different meanings to different people. To the aromatherapist it probably conjures up a vision of aromatic and medicinal plants growing in unpolluted conditions. To the chemist, it simply means a substance which contains the carbon molecule, for example, sugar. The French term biologique or ‘biological’ is probably a safer term to use when referring to organic plant production.

Many of us would like to see a return to organic growing for everything – it is better for the soil, better for the environment and generally results in a superior product. However, organic growing methods entail heavy labour costs, sometimes yielding less attractive results – compared (sadly) with chemically assisted supermarket-type produce. The improvement in flavour of organic fruits and vegetables should make up for the – often – smaller size and sometimes less attractive appearance!

Often, produce claiming to be organic is not, and it is necessary for British produce to have a certificate, e.g. from the Soil Association, as proof, which can be asked for by any discerning or suspicious shopper.

The same principle applies to the growing and buying of organic essential oils, the certificates being awarded by the country in which the plants are grown, e.g. Natur et Progrès, Biofranc, etc. in France, Demeter in Germany, and so on.

It is obviously better for a plant to utilize the nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK) in the soil than to be fed with chemically produced NPK. The farmers in Egypt, where some of our oils come from, occasionally use potassium sulphate and ammonium sulphate from local natural deposits beside the lake. Pesticides are rarely, if ever, used, yet I must say that if a swarm of locusts set upon their fields, I for one would forgive them for using them – I would not expect them to sit back and watch their crops being eaten. After all, their livelihood is at stake!

I believe that to have organic plants for consumption, i.e. in the production of dried herbs and fresh fruits, is an admirable idea. Although we do stock certificated oils, we also have some which are not certificated but are from biologically grown plants; I am not keen to claim these as organic for the following reasons:

1 It is a very expensive process, involving inspectors examining the soil and testing the plants from time to time for fertilizers and pesticides. The certificate-awarding body claim money not only from the farmer, but also at each transaction through to the final one, so the price of the essential oil at the end is rather high. By the way, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium do not come through in distillation.

2 It cannot be taken for granted that a field of biologically grown plants is always free from contamination. What about acid rain, air pollution, polluted ground water, aerial crop spraying, radioactivity e.g. Chernobyl, etc. – all beyond the control of the farmer?

Nevertheless, for those who (like several of our French farmer suppliers) believe in natural methods, the belief itself has to be the reason for wanting organic essential oils and if these beliefs are serious, it is a pity to have to escalate the price by buying proof, unless it is impossible to sell the crop (or the oils) without it. It may come to this one day, simply because some people will sell oils without certificates, claiming they are organic, when in fact they are not – just like the fruit and vegetable trade!

3 Aromachemistry – the Chemistry of Essential Oils (#ulink_87a896fc-2a86-5028-bd4f-84fd3b41a89b)

We are now going to take a look at the fundamentals of essential oils – the structure and effects of their chemical components. I want you to enjoy this chapter, and I hope you find it absorbing and stimulating.

Essential oils can be classified in several ways and if you know the chemical composition of an oil you can make a fairly good guess as to its therapeutic effects and possible hazards. There is no need for me to go into great detail – as my husband puts it, ‘It is quite safe to drive a car without being a qualified mechanic, so long as we understand the simple basic principles of how the car works and we have learnt to control it.’

I shall explain only the basics, very simply and I hope clearly, so that you can appreciate the significance of the components which make up the oils – and their relationship with one another. This way, you will get to know these precious gifts of nature and be able to use them in an understanding and respectful way.

Everything in the world, both living and non-living, is made up of chemicals. Most of the chemistry I learned at school was about things that are non-living and have never lived – this is called ‘inorganic’ chemistry. The chemistry which includes all living things (and those which have once lived) is called ‘organic’ chemistry or the chemistry of the carbon compound, since all organic substances contain carbon. The two main groups of chemicals in organic chemistry are referred to as chain or aliphatic and ring or aromatic (not necessarily meaning odorous).

Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen (this last accounts for nine-tenths of the human body!) are the basic building blocks of life itself, each of them being composed of atoms, the atom itself being thought at one time to be the smallest particle in existence.

Atoms

The building blocks of the universe! Every atom has a nucleus containing one or more protons, which are electrically positive, and one or more neutrons, which are neutral. Around the outside, depending on the particular atom, there are one or more electrons, each of which carries a negative electrical charge. These electrons are whizzing round and round the nucleus, rather like the earth orbits around the sun – ceaseless, never still. See Figure 3.1.

FIGURE 3.1: Hydrogen atom

The electrons orbit the nucleus at various distances from it. To feel really happy, the atom likes to have two electrons in the first ‘orbit’ (called a shell) around the nucleus – the second and further orbits or shells like to have eight.

As you can see from the diagram, a hydrogen atom is short of one electron – oxygen is short of two and carbon is short of no less than four! So each searches for and joins with other atoms capable of sharing electrons and therefore satisfactorily completing the number necessary for its stability. The atom is then content!

A simpler way to represent the ‘discontented’ or unstable atoms is to give them ‘arms’, i.e. – and =. These arms are called ‘bonds’ because they unite one atom to another.

Molecules

Once there are two or more atoms joined together, the group then becomes a molecule and Figure 3.2a shows a complete molecule of hydrogen, sharing the electrons.

You will notice that hydrogen only needs one more atom like itself to become stable. Oxygen, on the other hand, needs two hydrogen atoms to become a stable molecule of water (H

O). See Figure 3.2b. If we give the carbon atom four hydrogen atoms it will become a stable molecule of methane, (CH

) – Figure 3.2c, which is a gas; if we give the carbon atom two oxygen atoms (remember that oxygen has 2 arms) it will become a molecule of carbon dioxide (CO

), also a gas – the one we breathe out (Figure 3.2d).

FIGURE 3.2: a) hydrogen molecule; b) water molecule; c) methane molecule; d) carbon dioxide molecule

The bonds making up the water and the methane molecules are called ‘single bonds’, those making the carbon dioxide molecule are called ‘double bonds’, because there are two parallel bonds. Double bonds give a molecule a certain amount of rigidity, but they can separate fairly easily to provide an opportunity for other atoms to join in and share electrons as we shall see later on.

Now it begins to get interesting! Carbon atoms have a special ability to keep joining with other carbon atoms to form long straight or branched chains. Each time a carbon atom (with two hydrogen atoms) joins the chain, the molecule so formed is bigger and heavier than the one preceding it (see Figure 3.3).

We are nearly there!

FIGURE 3.3: The chain increases by the addition of CH2 each time