The Elements of Agriculture

The cultivator may be considered an improved harrow. The principal difference between them being, that while the teeth of the harrow are pointed at the lower end, those of the cultivator are shaped like a small double plow, being large at the bottom and growing smaller towards the top. They lift the earth up, instead of pressing it downwards, thus loosening instead of compacting the soil.

Many styles of cultivators are now sold at agricultural warehouses. A very good one, for field use, may be made by substituting the cultivator teeth for the spikes in an old harrow frame.

CHAPTER VI

ROLLING, MULCHING, WEEDING, ETC

ROLLING

Name some of the benefits of rolling?

Rolling the soil with a large roller, arranged to be drawn by a team, is in many instances a good accessory to cultivation. By its means, the following results are obtained:—

1. The soil at the surface is pulverized without the compacting of the lower parts, the area of contact being large.

2. The stones on the land are pressed down so as to be out of the way of the scythe in mowing.

3. The soil is compacted around seeds after sowing in such a manner as to exclude light and to touch them in every part, both of which are essential to their germination and to the healthfulness of the plants.

Under what circumstances should the roller be used?

4. The soil is so compacted at the surface, that it is less frequented by grubs, etc., than when it is more loose.

5. When the soil is smoothed in this manner, there is less surface exposed for the evaporation of water with its cooling effect.

6. Light sandy lands, by being rolled in the fall, are rendered more compact, and the loosening effects of frequent freezing and thawing are avoided.

Although productive of these various effects, rolling should be adopted only with much care, and should never be applied to very heavy lands, except in dry weather when lumpy after plowing, as its tendency in such cases would be to render them still more difficult of cultivation. Soils in which air does not circulate freely, are not improved by rolling, as it presses the surface-particles still more closely together, and prevents the free admission of the atmosphere.

If well under-drained, a large majority of soils would doubtless be benefited by a judicious use of the roller.[35 - Field rollers should be made in sections, for ease of turning.]

MULCHING

What is mulching?

What are some of its benefits?

Mulching (called Gurneyism in England) consists in covering the soil with salt hay, litter, seaweed, leaves, spent tanbark, chips, or other refuse matter.

Every farmer must have noticed that, if a board or rail, or an old brush-heap be removed in spring from soil where grass is growing, the grass afterwards grows in those places much larger and better than in other parts of the field.

This improvement arises from various causes.

1. The evaporation of water from the soil is prevented during drought by the shade afforded by the mulch; and it is therefore kept in better condition, as to moisture and temperature, than when evaporation goes on more freely. This condition is well calculated to advance the chemical changes necessary to prepare the matters—both organic and mineral—in the soil for the use of plants.

2. By preventing evaporation, we partially protect the soil from losing ammonia resultant from decaying organic matter.

3. A heavy mulch breaks the force of rains, and prevents them from compacting the soil, as would be the result, were no such precaution taken.

4. Mulching protects the surface-soil from freezing as readily as when exposed, and thus keeps it longer open for the admission of air and moisture. When unprotected, the soil early becomes frozen; and all water falling, instead of entering as it should do, passes off on the surface.

Why does mulching take the place of artificial watering?

Why is the late sowing of oats beneficial?

From what arises the chief benefit of top dressing the soil with manure in autumn?

5. The throwing out of winter grain is often prevented, because this is due to the freezing of the surface-soil.

6. Mulching prevents the growth of some weeds, because it removes from them the fostering heat of the sun.

Many of the best nursery-men keep the soil about the roots of young trees mulched continually. One of the chief arguments for this treatment is, that it prevents the removal of the moisture from the soil and the consequent loss of heat. Also that it keeps up a full supply of water for the uses of the roots, because it keeps the soil cool, and causes a deposit of dew.

7. It also prevents the "baking" of the soil, or the formation of a crust.

It is to be recommended in nearly all cases to sow oats very thinly over land intended for winter fallow after the removal of crops, as they will grow a little before being killed by the frost, when they will fall down, thus affording a very beneficial mulch to the soil.

When farmers spread manure on their fields in the fall to be plowed under in the spring, they benefit the land by the mulching more than by the addition of fertilizing matter, because they give it the protecting influence of the straw, etc., while they lose much of the ammonia of their manure by evaporation. The same mulching might be more cheaply done with leaves, or other refuse matter, and the ammonia of the manure made available by composting with absorbents.

Why is snow particularly beneficial?

It is an old and true saying that "snow is the poor man's manure." The reason why it is so beneficial is, chiefly, that it acts as a most excellent mulch. It contains no more ammonia than rain-water does; and, were it not for the fact that it protects the soil against loss of heat, and produces other benefits of mulching, it would have no more advantageous effect. The severity of winters at the North is partially compensated by the long duration of snow.

It is a well known fact that when there is but little snow in cold countries, wheat is very liable to be winter killed. The same protection is afforded by artificial mulching.

This treatment is peculiarly applicable to the cultivation of flowers, both in pots and in beds out of doors. It is almost indispensable to the profitable production of strawberries, and many other garden crops, such as asparagus, rhubarb, etc. Many say that the best treatment for trees is to put stones about their roots. This is simply mulching them, and might be done more cheaply by the use of leaves, copying the action of nature in forests;[36 - The beneficial effects of mulching is so great as to lead us to the conclusion that it has other means of action than those mentioned in this book. Future experiments may lead to more knowledge on this subject.] for, unless these stones be removed in spring, they will sink and compact the soil in part during open weather.

WEEDING

What are some of the uses of weeds? Their disadvantages?

If a farmer were asked—what is the use of weeds? he might make out quite a list of their benefits, among which might be some of the following:—

1. They shade tender plants, and in a measure serve as a mulch to the ground.

2. Some weeds, by their offensive odor, drive away many insects.

3. They may serve as a green crop to be plowed into the soil, and increase its organic matter.

4. They make us stir the soil, and thus increase its fertility.

Still, while thinking out these excuses for weeds, he would see other and more urgent reasons why they should not be allowed to grow.

1. They occupy the soil to the disadvantage of crops.

2. They exclude light and heat from cultivated plants, and thus interfere with their growth.

3. They take up mineral and other matters from the soil, and hold them during the growing season, thus depriving crops of their use.