The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion (Third Edition, Vol. 07 of 12)

787

See above, pp. 240 sqq.; and Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 247-249. As to head-hunting in British Borneo see H. L. Roth, The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo (London, 1896), ii. 140 sqq.; in Central Celebes, see A. C. Kruijt, “Het koppensnellen der Toradja's van Midden-Celebes, en zijne Beteekenis,” Verslagen en Mededeelingen der koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, Afdeelung Letterkunde, Vierde Reeks, iii. part 2 (Amsterdam, 1899), pp. 147-229; among the Igorot of Bontoc in Luzon, see A. E. Jenks, The Bontoc Igorot (Manilla, 1905), pp. 172 sqq.; among the Naga tribes of Assam, see Miss G. M. Godden, “Naga and other Frontier Tribes of North-East India”, Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxvii. (1898) pp. 12-17. It must not, however, be thought that among these tribes the custom of procuring human heads is practised merely as a means to ensure the growth of the crops; it is apparently supposed to exert a salutary influence on the whole life of the people by providing them with guardian spirits in the shape of the ghosts of the men to whom in their lifetime the heads belonged. The Scythians of Central Europe in antiquity set great store on the heads of the enemies whom they had slain in war. See Herodotus, iv. 64 sq.

788

There are traces in Greece itself of an old custom of sacrificing human victims to promote the fertility of the earth. See Pausanias, vii. 19. 3 sq. compared with vii. 20. 1; id., viii. 53. 3; L. R. Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States, ii. (Oxford, 1896) p. 455; and The Dying God, pp. 161 sq.

789

Above, pp. 215 sq.

790

Above, p. 216.

791

Hesychius, s. v. Βῶρμον.

792

Apollodorus, Bibliotheca, ii. 6. 3.

793

The scurrilities exchanged both in ancient and modern times between vine-dressers, vintagers, and passers-by seem to belong to a different category. See W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, pp. 53 sq.

794

See Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 188 sqq.

795

Above, pp. 236 sq., 240, 243, 244, 248 sq.

796

The probable correspondence of the months, which supplies so welcome a confirmation of the conjecture in the text, was pointed out to me by my friend W. Robertson Smith, who furnished me with the following note: “In the Syro-Macedonian calendar Lous represents Ab, not Tammuz. Was it different in Babylon? I think it was, and one month different, at least in the early times of the Greek monarchy in Asia. For we know from a Babylonian observation in the Almagest (Ideler, i. 396) that in 229 b. c. Xanthicus began on February 26. It was therefore the month before the equinoctial moon, not Nisan but Adar, and consequently Lous answered to the lunar month Tammuz.”

797

Above, p. 215.

798

Apollodorus, Bibliotheca, ii. 5. 11; Scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius, Argon. iv. 1396; Plutarch, Parall. 38. Herodotus (ii. 45) discredits the idea that the Egyptians ever offered human sacrifices. But his authority is not to be weighed against that of Manetho (Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 73), who affirms that they did. See further Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge, Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection (London and New York, 1911), i. 210 sqq., who says (pp. 210, 212): “There is abundant proof for the statement that the Egyptians offered up sacrifices of human beings, and that, in common with many African tribes at the present day, their customs in dealing with vanquished enemies were bloodthirsty and savage… The passages from Egyptian works quoted earlier in this chapter prove that human sacrifices were offered up at Heliopolis as well as at Tetu, or Busiris, and the rumour of such sacrifices has found expression in the works of Greek writers.”

799

E. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums, i. (Stuttgart, 1884), § 57, p. 68.

800

E. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums,2 i. 2 (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1909), p. 97; G. Maspero, Histoire Ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient Classique, Les Origines (Paris, 1895), pp. 129 sqq. Both these eminent historians have abandoned their former theory that Osiris was the Sun-god. Professor E. Meyer now speaks of Osiris as “the great vegetation god” and, on the same page, as “an earth-god” (op. cit. i. 2. p. 70). I am happy to find the view of the nature of Osiris, which I advocated many years ago, supported by the authority of so distinguished an Oriental scholar. Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge holds that Busiris was the oldest shrine of Osiris in the north of Egypt, but that it was less ancient than his shrine at Abydos in the south. See E. A. Wallis Budge, Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection (London and New York, 1911), ii. 1.

801

Diodorus Siculus, i. 88; Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 73, compare 30, 33.

802

Margaret A. Murray, The Osireion at Abydos (London, 1904), p. 30, referring to Mariette, Dendereh, iv. plates xxxi., lvi., and lxxxi. The passage of Diodorus Siculus referred to is i. 62. 4. As to masks of animals worn by Egyptian men and women in religious rites see The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 133; The Dying God, p. 72.

803

Above, pp. 237 sq., 240, 251.

804

E. J. Payne, History of the New World called America, i. (Oxford, 1892) p. 422.

805

Brasseur de Bourbourg, Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique et de l'Amérique Centrale (Paris, 1857-1859), iii. 535.

806

Festus, s. v. Catularia, p. 45 ed. C. O. Müller. Compare id., s. v. Rutilae canes, p. 285; Columella, De re rustica, x. 342 sq.; Ovid, Fasti, iv. 905 sqq.; Pliny, Nat. Hist. xviii. 14.

807

D. Chwolsohn, Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus (St. Petersburg, 1856), ii. 388 sq. Compare ibid., pp. 384 sq., 386 sq., 391, 393, 395, 397. For other instances of the assimilation of the victim to the god, see H. Oldenberg, Die Religion des Veda (Berlin, 1894), pp. 77 sq., 357-359.

808

Above, pp. 240, 249.

809

Above, pp. 149 sq., 237 sq., 239.

810

Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 18.

811

See above, p. 248; and compare Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 331 sqq.

812

See Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, p. 323.

813

Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 22, 30, 31, 33, 73.

814

Sir J. G. Wilkinson, Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians (ed. 1878), iii. 81.

815

Pausanias, i. 22. 3, viii. 5. 8, viii. 42. i.

816

Cornutus, Theologiae Graecae Compendium, 28. See above, p. 42.

817

W. Hone, Every-day Book (London, n. d.), ii. coll. 1170 sq.

818

Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, Shropshire Folk-lore (London, 1883), pp. 372 sq., referring to Mrs. Bray's Traditions of Devon, i. 330.

819

W. Hone, op. cit. ii. 1172.

820

The Rev. Sydney Cooper, of 80 Gloucester Street, Cirencester, wrote to me (4th February 1893) that his wife remembers the “neck” being kept on the mantelpiece of the parlour in a Cornish farmhouse; it generally stayed there throughout the year.

821

“Old Harvest Customs in Devon and Cornwall,” Folk-lore, i. (1890) p. 280.

822

Ibid.

823

Frances Hoggan, M.D., “The Neck Feast,” Folk-lore, iv. (1893) p. 123. In Pembrokeshire the last sheaf of corn seems to have been commonly known as “the Hag” (wrach) rather than as “the Neck.” See above, pp. 142-144.

824

J. Brand, Popular Antiquities, ii. 20 (Bohn's edition); Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, Shropshire Folk-lore, p. 371.

825

Burne and Jackson, l. c.

826

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 185.

827

See above, p. 158.

828

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 185.

829

Ibid.

830

Revue des Traditions populaires, ii. (1887) p. 500.

831

Above, p. 150.

832

E. Meier, in Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde, i. (1853) pp. 170-173; U. Jahn, Die deutschen Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und Viehzucht (Breslau, 1884), pp. 166-169; H. Pfannenschmid, Germanische Erntefeste (Hanover, 1878), pp. 104 sq.; A. Kuhn, Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen (Leipsic, 1859), ii. pp. 177 sq., §§ 491, 492; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche (Leipsic, 1848), p. 395), § 97; K. Lynker, Deutsche Sagen und Sitten in hessischen Gauen (Cassel and Göttingen, 1860), p. 256, § 340.

833

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen (Berlin, 1868), pp. 1-6.

834

W. Mannhardt, Roggenwolf und Roggenhund2 (Danzig, 1866), pp. 6 sqq.; id., Antike Wald- und Feldkulte (Berlin, 1877), pp. 318 sq.; id., Mythologische Forschungen, p. 103; A. Witzchel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen (Vienna, 1878), p. 213; O. Hartung, “Zur Volkskunde aus Anhalt,” Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde, vii. (1897) p. 150; W. Müller, Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren (Vienna and Olmütz, 1893), p. 327; P. Drechsler, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii, 60.

835

W. Mannhardt, Roggenwolf und Roggenhund,2 pp. 10 sqq.; id., Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 319.

836

W. Mannhardt, Roggenwolf und Roggenhund,2 pp. 14 sq.

837

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 104; P. Drechsler, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien, ii. 64.

838

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 104.

839

Ibid. pp. 104 sq. On the Harvest-May, see The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 47 sq.

840

L. F. Sauvé, Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges (Paris, 1889), p. 191.

841

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 105.

842

Ibid. p. 30.

843

Ibid. pp. 30, 105.

844

Ibid. pp. 105 sq.

845

P. Drechsler, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 64.

846

W. Mannhardt, Roggenwolf und Roggenhund,2 pp. 33, 39; K. Bartsch, Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Meklenburg (Vienna, 1879-1880), ii. p. 309, § 1496, p. 310, §§ 1497, 1498.

847

W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 320.

848

W. Mannhardt, Roggenwolf und Roggenhund,2 p. 33.

849

W. Mannhardt, Roggenwolf und Roggenhund,2 pp. 33 sq.; K. Bartsch, op. cit. ii. p. 309, § 1496, p. 310, §§ 1497, 1500, 1501.

850

W. Mannhardt, Roggenwolf und Roggenhund,2 pp. 33, 34.

851

W. Mannhardt, Roggenwolf und Roggenhund,2 p. 38; id., Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 320.

852

W. Mannhardt, Roggenwolf und Roggenhund,2 pp. 34 sq.

853

K. Bartsch, op. cit. ii. p. 311, § 1505.

854

W. Mannhardt, Roggenwolf und Roggenhund,2 pp. 35-37; K. Bartsch, op. cit. ii. p. 309, § 1496, p. 310, §§ 1499, 1501, p. 311, §§ 1506, 1507.

855

W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 321.

856

Ibid. pp. 321 sq.

857

Ibid. p. 320.

858

Ibid. pp. 320 sq.

859

Ibid. p. 322.

860

Ibid. p. 323.

861

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, p. 13.

862

W. Mannhardt, l. c.; J. H. Schmitz, Sitten und Sagen, Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Rathsel des Eifler Volkes (Treves, 1856-1858), i. 95; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche (Leipsic, 1848), p. 398.

863

G. A. Heinrich, Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 21.

864

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, p. 13. Compare A. Kuhn and W. Schwartz, l. c.

865

K. Haupt, Sagenbuch der Lausitz (Leipsic, 1862-1863), i. p. 232, No. 277 note.

866

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, p. 13.

867

A. Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen (Vienna, 1878), p. 220.

868

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, pp. 13 sq.; J. H. Schmitz, Sitten und Sagen, Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel des Eifler Volkes (Treves, 1856-1858), i. 95; A. Kuhn, Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen (Leipsic, 1859), ii. 180 sq.; H. Pfannenschmid, Germanische Erntefeste (Hanover, 1878), p. 110.

869

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, p. 14; H. Pfannenschmid, op. cit. pp. 111, 419 sq.

870

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, p. 15. So in Shropshire, where the corn-spirit is conceived in the form of a gander (see above, p. 268), the expression for overthrowing a load at harvest is “to lose the goose,” and the penalty used to be the loss of the goose at the harvest-supper (C. S. Burne and G. F. Jackson, Shropshire Folk-lore, London, 1883, p. 375); and in some parts of England the harvest-supper was called the Harvest Gosling, or the Inning Goose (J. Brand, Popular Antiquities, ii. 23, 26, Bohn's edition).

871

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, p. 14.

872

Ibid. p. 15.

873

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 30.

874

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, p. 15.

875

Ibid. pp. 15 sq.

876

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, p. 15; id., Mythologische Forschungen, p. 30.

877

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, p. 1.

878

W. Gregor, “Preliminary Report on Folklore in Galloway, Scotland,” Report of the British Association for 1896, p. 623.

879

Folk-lore Journal, vii. (1889) pp. 47 sq.

880

L. F. Sauvé, Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges (Paris, 1889), p. 191.

881

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, p. 3.

882

O. Hartung, “Zur Volkskunde aus Anhalt,” Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde, vii. (1897) p. 154.

883

C. Lemke, Volksthümliches in Ostpreussen (Mohrungen, 1884-1887), i. 24.

884

G. A. Heinrich, Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 21.

885

Above, p. 268.

886

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 29.

887

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, pp. 29 sq.; id., Die Korndämonen, p. 5.

888

Georgeakis et Pineau, Folk-lore de Lesbos (Paris, 1894), p. 310.

889

W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, pp. 172-174; id., Mythologische Forschungen, p. 30; P. Drechsler, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 64, 65.

890

L. F. Sauvé, Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges (Paris, 1889), p. 191.

891

Ch. Beauquier, Les Mois en Franche-Comté (Paris, 1900), p. 102.

892

W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, pp. 155 sq.

893

Ibid. pp. 157 sq.

894

Ibid. p. 159.

895

Ibid. pp. 161 sq.

896

Ibid. p. 162.

897

F. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. pp. 232 sq., § 426; W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 162.

898

F. Panzer, op. cit. ii. pp. 228 sq., § 422; W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 163; Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern, iii. (Munich, 1865) p. 344.

899

W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 163.

900

E. H. Meyer, Badisches Volksleben (Strasburg, 1900), p. 428.

901

W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 164.

902

Ibid. p. 164.

903

E. H. Meyer, Badisches Volksleben (Strasburg, 1900), p. 428.

904

W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, pp. 164 sq.

905

Ibid. p. 165.

906

J. Brand, Popular Antiquities, ii. 24, Bohn's edition, quoting The Gentleman's Magazine for February, 1795, p. 124; W. Mannhardt, op. cit. p. 165.

907

R. C. Maclagan, “Notes on folk-lore objects collected in Argyleshire,” Folk-lore, vi. (1895) p. 151, from information given by Mrs. C. Nicholson.

908

Above, p. 232.

909

W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 165.

910

W. Mannhardt, op. cit. p. 166; id., Mythologische Forschungen, p. 185.

911

W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 166.

912

Above, p. 281.

913

J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), p. 107.

914

G. A. Heinrich, Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 19. Compare W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 482 sqq.

915

E. L. Meyer, Badisches Volksleben (Strasburg, 1900), p. 436.

916

F. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. pp. 225 sqq., § 421; W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, pp. 167 sq.

917

W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 168.

918

A. John, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen (Prague, 1905), p. 194.

919

E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben (Stuttgart, 1852), p. 445, § 162; W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 168.

920

W. Mannhardt, op. cit. p. 169.

921

F. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. pp. 224 sq., § 420; W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 169.

922

W. Mannhardt, op. cit. p. 169.

923

Ibid. p. 170.

924

Ibid. p. 170. As to the custom of leaving a little corn on the field for the subsistence of the corn-spirit, see above, pp. 231 sqq.

925

M. Praetorius, Deliciae Prussicae (Berlin, 1871), pp. 23 sq.; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 394 sq.

926

A. C. Kruijt, “Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de Toboengkoe en de Tomori,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, xliv. (1900) p. 241.

927

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 58.

928

Ibid.

929

Ibid. p. 62.

930

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 59.

931

Above, p. 275.

932

W. Mannhardt, op. cit. p. 59.

933

E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben (Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 440 sq., §§ 151, 152, 153; F. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. p. 234, § 428; W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 59.

934

F. Panzer, op. cit. ii. p. 233, § 427; W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 59.

935

W. Mannhardt, op. cit. pp. 59 sq.

936

Ibid. p. 58.

937

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, pp. 58 sq.

938

Ibid. p. 60.

939

E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben, pp. 444 sq., § 162; W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 61.

940

F. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. p. 233, § 427.

941

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, pp. 61 sq.

942

Ibid. p. 62.

943

Ibid. p. 62.

944

E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben, pp. 445 sq., § 163.

945

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 60.

946

W. Mannhardt, op. cit. p. 62.

947

Above, pp. 150 sq.

948

Laisnel de la Salle, Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France (Paris, 1875), ii. 135.

949

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 62: “Il fait le veau.”

950

Ibid.

951

Ibid. p. 63.