History of the Jews in Russia and Poland. Volume 1 of 3. From the Beginning until the Death of Alexander I (1825)
52
According to another version, they forged the contents of the royal warrant.
53
[With the gradual weakening of the royal power, which, after the extinction of the Yaghello dynasty, in 1572, was transformed into an elective office, the favorite designation for the Polish Empire came to be Rzecz (pronounced Zhech) Pospolita, a literal rendering of the Latin Res Publica. The term comprises Poland as well as Lithuania, which, in 1569, had been united in one Empire.]
54
They are referred to in his edicts as calumniae.
55
[The Arian heresy, as modified and preached by Faustus Socinus (1539-1604), an Italian who settled in Poland, became a powerful factor in the Polish intellectual life of that period. Because of its liberal tendency, this doctrine appealed in particular to the educated classes, and its adherents, called Socinians, were largely recruited from the ranks of the Shlakhta. Under Sigismund III. a strong reaction set in, culminating in the law passed by the Diet of 1658, according to which all "Arians" were to leave the country within two years.]
56
[Arendar, also arendator, from medieval Latin arrendare, "to rent," signifies in Polish and Russian a lessee, originally of a farm, subsequently of the tavern and, as is seen in the text, other sources of revenue on the estate. These arendars being mostly Jews, the name, abbreviated in Yiddish to randar, came practically to mean "village Jew."]
57
[Literally, lord: the lord of the manor, noble landowner.]
58
There is reason to believe that he is the hero of the legendary story according to which an influential Polish Jew by the name of Saul Wahl, a favorite of Prince Radziwill, was, during an interregnum, proclaimed Polish king by the Shlakhta, and reigned for one night.
59
[See pp. 29 et seq. Kiev was captured by the Lithuanians in 1320, and remained, through the union of Lithuania and Poland, a part of the Polish Empire until 1654, when, together with the province of Little Russia, it was ceded to Muscovy.]
60
See p. 55.
61
[Stephen Batory instituted two supreme courts for the realm: one for the Crown, i. e. for Poland proper, and another for Lithuania. The former held its sessions in Lublin for Little Poland and in Piotrkov for Great Poland (see p. 164).]
62
A second edition of the book appeared in 1636.
63
[In addition to the regular Diets, which assembled every two years (see above, p. 76, n. 1), there were held also Election Diets and Coronation Diets, in connection with the election and the coronation of the new king. The former met on a field near Warsaw; the latter were held in Cracow.]
64
[Moghilev on the Dnieper, in White Russia, is to be distinguished from Moghilev on the Dniester, a town in the present Government of Podolia.]
65
See pp. 72 and 73.
66
[Unanimi voto et consensu are the exact words of the document. See Bersohn, Dyplomatariusz (Collection of ancient Polish enactments relating to Jews), p. 51.]
67
[Literally, By-Kahals.]
68
[a = short German a. In Hebrew ועד.]
69
[Great Poland, Little Poland, Red Russia, and Volhynia. Volhynia at first formed part of the Lithuanian Duchy, but was ceded to the Crown, in 1569, by the Union of Lublin.]
70
In the middle of the seventeenth century their number was six.
71
Nathan Hannover, in his Yeven Metzula [see p. 157, n. 1], ed. Venice, 1653, p. 12.
72
[A Hebrew term designating public-spirited Jews who defend the interests of their coreligionists before the Government. In Polish official documents they are referred to as "General Syndics." In Poland the shtadlans were regular officials maintained by the Jewish community. Comp. the article by L. Lewin, Der Schtadlan im Posener Ghetto, in Festschrift published in honor of Dr. Wolf Feilchenfeld (1907), pp. 31 et seq.]
73
Towards the end of the sixteenth century Warsaw, instead of Cracow, became the residence of the Polish kings. The Jews had no right of domicile in Warsaw, and were permitted only to visit it temporarily. [See p. 85.]
74
[See p. 93, n. 1.]
75
[See p. 76, n. 1.]
76
[The so-called Jüdisch-Deutsch, which was by the Jews brought from Germany to Poland and Lithuania. It was only in the latter part of the seventeenth century that the dialect of Polish-Lithuanian Jewry began to depart from the Jüdisch-Deutsch as spoken by the German Jews, thus laying the foundation for modern Yiddish. See Dubnow's article "On the Spoken Dialect and the Popular Literature of the Polish and Lithuanian Jews in the Sixteenth and the First Half of the Seventeenth Century," in the periodical Yevreyskaya Starina, i. (1909), pp. 1 et seq.]
77
[I. e. Red Russia, or Galicia.]
78
Yeven Metzula [see p. 157, n. 1], towards the end.
79
[Literally, "our teacher," a title bestowed since the Middle Ages on every ordained rabbi.]
80
[Literally, "companion," "colleague," a title conferred upon men who, without being ordained, have attained a high degree of scholarship.]
81
[Abbreviation for Rabbi Solomon ben Isaac (d. 1105), a famous French rabbi, whose commentaries on the Bible and the Talmud are marked by wonderful lucidity.]
82
[A school of Talmudic authorities, mostly of French origin, who, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, wrote Tosafoth (literally, "Additions"), critical and exegetical annotations, distinguished for their ingenuity.]
83
[Hebrew for "Rows," with reference to the four rows of precious stones in the garment of the high priest (Ex. xxviii., 17) – title of a code of laws composed by Rabbi Jacob ben Asher (died at Toledo ab. 1340). It is divided into four parts, dealing respectively with ritual, dietary, domestic, and civil laws. The Turim was the forerunner of the Shulhan Arukh, for which it served as a model.]
84
[Isaac ben Jacob al-Fasi (i. e. from Fez in North Africa) (died 1103), author of a famous Talmudic compendium.]
85
עמודי שש, ed. Lemberg, 1865, pp. 18b, 61b.
86
It has been conjectured that the same scholar occupied, some time between 1503 and 1520, the post of rector in Poland itself, being at the head of the yeshibah in Cracow.
87
[Two of his Responsa were published in Cracow, ab. 1540. See Zedner, Catalogue British Museum, p. 695. A new edition appeared in Husiatyn, in 1904, together with Hiddushe Aaron Halevi.]
88
רמ״א [initials of Rabbi Moses I(א=o)sserles].
89
[See p. 118, n. 1.]
90
Popularly, however, Isserles' supplements are called Haggahoth ("Annotations").
91
רש״ל [initials of Rabbi SHelomo Luria].
92
[See p. 117, n. 4.]
93
[Allusion to I Kings vii. 23-26.]
94
[Allusion to Lev. vi. 2.]
95
[See p. 118, n. 1.]
96
[The titles of the various parts of his work are all composed of the word Lebush ("Raiment") and some additional epithet, borrowed, with reference to the author's name, from the description of Mordecai's garments, in Esther viii. 15.]
97
[The Shulhan Arukh, following the arrangement of the Turim (see above, p. 118, n. 1), is divided into four parts, the fourth of which, dealing with civil law, is called Hoshen Mishpat, "Breastplate of Judgment," with reference to Ex. xxviii. 15.]
98
[Allusion to Ps. xix. 9.]
99
See pp. 111 and 112.
100
מהר״ם [initials of Morenu (see p. 117, n. 1) Ha-rab (the rabbi) Rabbi Meïr.]
101
מהרש״א [initials of Morenu Ha-rab Rabbi SHemuel E(א=o)dels. Comp. the preceding note].
102
[Literally, "Teaching Knowledge" (from Isaiah xxviii. 9), the title of the second part of the Shulhan Arukh. See above, p. 128, n. 1.]
103
["Rows of Gold," allusion to the Turim (see above, p. 118, n. 1), with a clever play on the similarly sounding words in Cant. i. 11. – Subsequently David Halevi extended his commentary to the other parts of the Shulhan Arukh.]
104
[Allusion to Mal. ii. 7. – Later Sabbatai extended his commentary to the civil section of the Shulhan Arukh, called Hoshen Mishpat (see p. 128, n. 1).]
105
[See p. 75, n. 2.]
106
[Allusion to Gen. xxv. 27.]
107
[Allusion to Ps. i. 3.]
108
ישר מקנדיא [initials of Yosef SHelomo Rofe (physician)].
109
[In his book Ma`yan Gannim ("Fountain of Gardens," allusion to Cant. iv. 15), Introduction.]
110
[Kabbalah ma`asith, a phase of the Cabala which endeavors to influence the course of nature by Cabalistic practices, in other words, by performing miracles.]
111
[Initials of Ashkenazi Rabbi Isaac [Luria]; he died at Safed in Palestine in 1572.]
112
[Hayyim Vital, also of Safed, died 1620.]
113
[Abbreviation of SHne Luhoth Ha-brith, "The Two Tables of the Covenant" (Deut. ix. 15).]
114
["Hooks of the Pillars," allusion to Ex. xxvii. 11.]
115
[Allusion to Job xii. 22.]
116
[See above, p. 91, n. 1. There were, however, considerable differences of opinion among the various factions.]
117
[A town in the province of Lublin. Jacob became subsequently court physician of Sigismund III.; see Kraushar, Historyja Zydów w Polsce, ii. 268, n. 1. On his name, see Geiger's Nachgelassene Schriften, iii. 213.]
118
Some deny that he was a Karaite.
119
[An English translation by Moses Mocatta appeared in London in 1851 under the title "Faith Strengthened."]
120
[Pronounced Ookraïna. The spelling "Ukraine" is less correct. The meaning of the word is "border," "frontier."]
121
[The author refers to the compulsory establishment of the so-called Uniat Church, which follows the rites and traditions of the Greek Orthodox faith, but submits at the same time to the jurisdiction of the Roman See. The Uniat Church is still largely represented in Eastern Galicia among the Ruthenians.]
122
[A contemptuous nickname for Pole.]
123
[The word "Cossack," in Russian, Kazak (with the accent on the last syllable), is derived from the Tataric. "Cossackdom" – says Kostomarov, in his Russian standard work on the Cossack uprising (Bogdan Khmelnitzki, i. p. 5) – "is undoubtedly of Tataric origin, and so is the very name Kozak, which in Tataric means 'vagrant,' 'free warrior,' 'rider.'" Peter Kropotkin (Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th edition, vii. 218) similarly derives the word from Turki Kuzzãk, "adventurer," "freebooter."]
124
[Derived from the German word Hauptmann.]
125
[From the Russian word Za porogi, meaning "beyond the Falls" (scil. of the Dnieper).]
126
[Literally, "cutting," i. e. the cutting of a forest. Originally the Cossacks entered those regions as colonists and pioneers.]
127
According to legend, the chief of the district had pillaged Khmelnitzki's tent, carried off his wife, and flogged his son to death.
128
[In Polish, Pokucie, name of a region in the southeast of the Polish Empire, between Hungary and the Bukowina. Its capital was the Galician city Kolomea.]
129
The clause in question runs as follows: "The Jews, even as they formerly were residents and arendars on the estates of his Royal Majesty, as well as on the estates of the Shlakhta, shall equally be so in the future."
130
[See p. 98, n. 2.]
131
[Allusion to Amos v. 19.]
132
["Mire of the Deep," from Ps. lxix. 3. – The Hebrew word Yeven is a play on Yavan, "Greek," a term generally applied to the Greek Orthodox.]
133
See p. 130.
134
["Scroll of Darkness" (comp. Amos iv. 13), with a clever allusion to the similarly sounding words in Zech. v. 1.]
135
[In Polish Szczebrzeszyn, a town in the region of Lublin.]
136
["Troublous Times," allusion to Dan. ix. 25.]
137
["Door of Repentance."]
138
[See p. 98, n. 1.]
139
[I. e. son of Mark, or Mordecai. On "syndics" see p. 111, n. 2.]
140
[Twenty per cent was the legalized rate of interest in Italy at the end of the fifteenth century. See Israel Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, p. 242.]
141
We quote the following in abbreviated form. [For the complete text see the article cited in the next note.]
142
From the Hebrew text it is not clear whether they offered themselves voluntarily as victims, or whether they were picked out by others. According to the local tradition in Ruzhany, the former was the case. [See Dubnow in the Russian Jewish monthly Voskhod, July, 1903, p. 19, n. 1.]
143
The corresponding word in Hebrew (שלומים), which is marked with dots in the original, represents the year of the event: [5]420 aera mundi, which equals 1659 C. E.
144
I. e. they tried to convert the martyrs to Catholicism.
145
[Allusion to Judges ix. 9, where the English version translates differently. The Hebrew word for "tree" also signifies "wood," and is used in polemic literature for "cross."]
146
[See p. 91, n. 1.]
147
[See p. 96, n. 1.]
148
[The Senate formed the upper chamber of the Polish parliament.]
149
In the "Political Catechism of the Polish Republic," published in 1735, we read the following: "Who is it in this vast country that engages in commerce, in handicrafts, in keeping inns and taverns?" – "The Jews." … "What may be the reason for it?" – "Because all commerce and handicrafts are prohibited to the Shlakhta on account of the importance of this estate, just as sins are prohibited by the commandments of God and by the law of nature." – "Who imposes and who pays the taxes?" – "The taxes are imposed by the nobility, and they are paid by the peasant, the burgher, and the Jew."
150
[See above, p. 46, n. 1, and p. 60, n. 1.]
151
[More exactly, faktor, Polish designation for broker, agent, and general utility man.]
152
[Popular Polish form of the Jewish name Baer.]
153
The last order was subsequently repealed.
154
[See p. 55.]
155
[See pp. 164 and 165.]
156
According to another version, he expressed his willingness to embrace Christianity in order to escape death, but afterwards repented.
157
[In Podolia.]
158
[In the province of Kiev.]
159
[In Volhynia.]
160
[Near Lublin.]
161
Another variant of the name is Jelek. [The latter form is declared to be incorrect by A. Berliner, Gutachten Ganganelli's (Berlin, 1888), p. 41.]
162
Of all the accusations of this kind, the Cardinal recognizes the correctness of only two, the murder of Simon of Trent in 1475 and of Andreas of Brixen in 1462, adding, however, that even their death was not caused by the legendary Jewish ritual, but simply by Jewish "hatred against the Christians."
163
[See p. 78.]
164
[See p. 143, n. 2.]
165
[A word of uncertain origin meaning "rebel" or "rioter." See p. 149.]
166
[A town in Podolia.]
167
[See p. 142, n. 1.]
168
[See p. 320, n. 2.]
169
[Pronounced Ooman̄, with a soft sound at the end. In Polish the name is spelled Humań.]
170
According to the Polish census of 1764-1766 the number of Jews in Poland and Lithuania amounted during those years, on the eve of the partitions, to 621,000 souls.
171
[See p. 46, n. 1, and p. 60, n. 1.]
172
[Generally pronounced shammes.]
173
See p. 107.
174
[I. e. military commander. Originally the title is found among the Cossacks; see p. 143, n. 1.]
175
[See p. 108, n. 1.]
176
See pp. 204 et seq.
177
["Blessing of the Sacrifice," allusion to I Sam. ix. 13.]
178
Compare Be'er ha-Gola, "Well of the Exiles," by Moses Rivkes, who fled from Vilna during the massacre of 1655; Magen Abraham, "Shield of Abraham" [allusion to Gen. xv. 1], by Abel Gumbiner, Rosh-Yeshibah in Kalish, whose parents perished during the time of unrest, and many others.
179
[Tannaim are the Talmudic authorities before 20 °C. E.; Amoraim are those between that date and the conclusion of the Talmud, in 50 °C. E.]
180
[Died 1613. Author of the Hebrew chronicle Tzemah David, "Branch of David."]
181
[The word originally means "chastisement" (generally by the father). It then signifies instruction, particularly ethical instruction.]
182
Such as `Amudeha Shiv`ah ["Her Seven Pillars," allusion to Prov. ix. 1], by Bezalel of Kobrin, 1666; Maor ha-katon ["The Lesser Light," allusion to Gen. i. 16], by Meïr of Tarnopol, 1697; Nethib ha-Yashar, "The Right Path," by Naphtali of Minsk, 1712, and many others.
183
[See p. 134, n. 3.]
184
[See p. 134, n. 4.]
185
See p. 200.
186
[On the meaning of the name see p. 223, n. 1.]
187
[In Polish, Zamość, a town in the region of Lublin.]
188
[See on this controversy Grätz's History, English translation, v. 257 f.]
189
[See p. 130.]
190
[Ibid.]
191
[In Hebrew the two names are not clearly distinguishable. The former town, in Polish, Szydlowiec, is near Radom. The latter, in Polish, Siedlce, is the capital of the present Russian Government of the same name, not far from Warsaw.]
192
[The Turkish Sabbatians, from whom this Spanish title was borrowed, spoke the Judeo-Spanish dialect. On the abbreviation S. S., see Grätz, Geschichte der Juden, x3, 379, n. 1.]
193
[In Polish, Lanckorona, a town in Podolia.]
194
[Literally, "the Lady," a Cabalistic term for the Divine Presence.]
195
[In Podolia.]
196
[See p. 134, n. 4.]
197
Tar`ā de-Rōmēm, the legendary dwelling-place of the Messiah. [Comp. Sanhedrin 98a.]
198
[Literally, "Master of the Name," a man able to perform miracles through the Name of God.]
199
An exposition of his doctrines may be found in the book entitled Maggid Debarav le-Ya`kob ["Showing His Words unto Jacob" – allusion to Ps. cxlvii. 19], also called Likkute Amarim, "Collection of Sayings." It was published after his death, in 1784.
200
["History of Jacob Joseph" – a clever allusion to the Hebrew text of Gen. xxxvii. 2.]
201
Hayye, bane, u-mezone [allusion to a well-known Talmudic dictum; Mo`ed Katan 28a].
202
[His full name was Shneor Zalman, which is used by the author later on. Subsequently he assumed the family name Shneorsohn.]
203
In Hebrew, Hokma, Bina, Da`ath, abbreviated to HaBaD, from which the White Russian Hasidim received the nickname "Habadniks."
204
הגר״א [Hagro, abbreviation of Ha-Gaon Rabbi E(א=o)lia].
205
The custom of wearing white garments was adopted, for certain mystical considerations, by the Tzaddiks and the most pious of their followers.
206
See p. 230.
207
See pp. 377 et seq.
208
See p. 36 and p. 37.
209
[In the present Russian Government of Vitebsk, to be distinguished from Plotzk, in Polish, Plock, the capital of the Government of the same name in Russian Poland, on the right bank of the Vistula.]
210
See pp. 153 et seq.
211
[Pronounced ookaz, with the accent on the last syllable. The original meaning of the word is "indication," "instruction." It is applied to orders issued by the Tzar himself or, in the name of the Tzar, by the Senate.]
212
Little Russia possessed at that time its own military organization, consisting of regiments and "hundreds," under the command of native officers. At the head of the organization stood the commander-in-chief, called hetman [see p. 143, n. 1].
213
[The term "resolution" (in Russian, resolutzia) is applied to a decision written by the Tzar in his own hand on the margin of the reports submitted to him.]
214
[See p. 253, n. 1.]
215
[On this expression see p. 88, n. 1.]
216
[It consisted of the present Governments of Moghilev and Vitebsk.]
217
[After the first partition of Poland the Government of the country was placed in the hands of a Permanent Council consisting of thirty-six members, who were to be elected by the Diets, and were to take charge of the five departments of the administration: foreign affairs, police, war, justice, and finance. The king was to be the president of the Council. The Diet, which assembled on October 6, 1788, abolished this Permanent Council, and set out to elaborate a modern Constitution, which was finally presented on May 3, 1791. While, according to Polish law, the Diets met only once in two years for six weeks (see above, p. 76, n. 1), the Diet of 1788 declared itself permanent. It sat for four years – hence its name, the Quadrennial Diet – until the adoption of the new Constitution in 1791 led to civil war and to the intervention of Russia.]
